WW21+Total+War

=Total war and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany=


 * Total War**: All aspects of the economy and society are directed towards the war effort. This results in greater government control of the economy and labour.

“World War I was the first total war in modern history, in the sense that its rigors were apt to be visited upon all citizens of the participating powers, however remote they might be from the battle area... The fortunes of war influenced or determined their freedom of action, their employment, their diet, and even what they were allowed to think and say.” Gordon A Craig, //Europe Since 1815//, pp.524-5

= Germany =


 * Focus Questions**:
 * How did political authority become more centrally controlled in Germany?
 * In what ways did Germany try to overcome the shortage of materials caused by the British blockade?
 * How was food production and distribution controlled during the war in Germany?
 * How did Germany finance its war effort?


 * Political authority**

The patriotic response to the start of the war, and the total support from all major political parties, including the Social Democratic Party, left no opposition to the Government. The Kaiser said, “I recognise parties no more. I recognise only Germans!”

Germany did not have a strong democratic tradition. As the war progressed, authority became more centralised.

The role of parliament weakened as the power of the military increased. When Hindenburg took over as Chief of the General Staff in August 1916, with his deputy Ludendorff, he controlled not only the military policy but also had control of all economic decisions and wielded great political influence. They were able to force the resignation of the Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg, in 1917.


 * Economic Mobilisation**

The British naval blockade meant that Germany faced shortages of resources essential for the war. Germany also suffered severe food shortages. The impact of the blockade meant that German civilians suffered much more that the British, especially in the second half of the war, and were under much more government control from the start of the war.

“Germany was at a distinct disadvantage, from an economic point of view, in carrying on a protracted war. She was dependent on imports of food, fats, and oils and strategic chemicals such as nitrates to fill many of her vital needs. Manpower shortages also began to loom ominously in the picture, and eventually proved to be the Achilles heel of the German war machine. That she was able to hold out as long as she did was an indication of the national discipline, the scientific ingenuity, and the marvellous organising capacity which the war elicited from the people and its leaders... The most important factor, however, was the organisation of the entire economy of the country by the military to serve the ends of the war machine – the so-called Kriegswirtschaft, or war economy. From a relatively free economy in 1914, Germany emerged in 1918 with a thoroughly militarised economy of state socialism in which government controls and regulation covered all phases of economic life.” (**Pinson**, //Modern Germany//, p.322)

August 1914 – **War Raw Materials Department** (KRA – //Kriegsrohstoffabteilung//)
 * War Materials**
 * Walther Rathenau director.
 * Controlled use and allocation of vital raw materials and controlled labour.
 * Resources taken from occupied countries.
 * Raw materials companies (Kriegswirtschaftgesellschaften) established – could requisition raw materials and allocate them to manufacturers.
 * 1916 Central Purchasing Company (ZEG – Zentraleinkauftsgesellschaft) to import materials and food from neutral companies
 * Ersatz (substitute) materials developed, e.g. wood pulp to make textiles, synthetic rubber.

“Scientists rallied to the war effort... Fritz Haber invented a system for extracting nitrogen from air, thereby alleviating the Reich’s prewar reliance on Chilean saltpetre (nitrates). Ersatz became the rage. Nitrate crepe paper made from wood cellulose took the place of gun cotton; synthetic camphor replaced imported natural camphor; glycerine was manufactured from sugar rather than fats; gypsum yielded sulphur; a host of flowers and weeds were processed to produce alcohol for ammunition; and rosins and gums were extracted from a plethora of coal derivitives.” (Herwig, H.H., //The First World War//, 1997, p.256 – in Webb p.88)

Large industrial firms took advantage of the war to expand, e.g., Krupp, Siemens

The military required ever increasing amounts of armaments which by 1916 could not be delivered. The war economy became even more centrally controlled:


 * In August 1916 **Hindenburg** was made Chief of General Staff and the General Headquarters (GHQ) took over much of the work on the War Department. The **Hindenburg Program** was introduced, based on Lloyd George’s Munitions of War Act, to massively increase armaments production
 * Oct 1916 **Weapons and Munitions Procurement Agency** (WUMBA Waffen- und Munitionsbeschaffungsamt) – controlled coal, iron and steel production
 * November 1916 **War Office** (Kriegsamt) under Lieutenant General Wilhelm Groener and closely tied to the GHQ and Hindenburg. Controlled all areas of the economy.
 * November 1916 **Patriotic Auxiliary Service Law** – called up men 17-60 years of age for labour.

Shortages still prevailed. The demands of the Hindenburg Program created a crisis in transportation of coal required by the steel industry. This, combined with the harsh 1917 winter, caused a fall in production in January and February 1917 which contributed to the German decision to withdraw to the Hindenburg Line.

“Transportation was perhaps the most vexing problem... Roughly 400,000 horses were killed by hostile fire and 500,000 died of illness due to malnutrition. As a result Germany turned to motorised transport... But it possessed neither rubber plantations nor oil fields. Petrol and rubber on hand in 1914 quickly ran out. By 1915 the monthly need of 15,000 rubber tyres and 25,000 pneumatic tubes could no longer be met... By 1917 wooden tyres were prescribed. Attempts to produce synthetic rubber (Kautschuk) proved slow and unrewarding... by 1917, no amount of ersatz could hide the Reich’s painful shortages of oil and rubber.”

(Herwig, H.H., //The First World War//, 1997, p.256-7 – in Webb p.89)


 * Food**


 * Food supplies were severely affected by the British naval blockade.
 * The Government response was initially haphazard and inadequate. Nitrates, vital as fertilizer for agriculture, were initially dedicated to armaments production. Bread rationing began in Berlin in January 1915 and by June had been implemented throughout the empire. Eventually restrictions existed on all areas of food production, distribution and consumption: for example, 1915 **Imperial Grain Office** (Reichsgetreidestelle) – controlled grain supplies, milling and rationing; Oct 1915 **Imperial Potato Office** (Reichskartoffel-Stelle). There was much bureaucratic overlapping and little coordination of policy, resulting in great shortages.
 * In May 1916 the **War Food Office** (KEA Kriegsernährungsamt) was established to centrally control all aspects of food production, distribution and consumption. But it controlled a huge number of subsidiary offices and could not provide adequate supplies. The severe winter of 1916-7 was known as the **turnip winter**.

“The titles of some of these subsidiary organisations of the Food Office will give an idea of the complicated system which Dr Batocki is operating, and which he defends with enthusiasm against all detractors. The first on the list is, naturally, the Central Office for the Supply of the Army. The come along the Imperial Grain Office, Imperial Office for the Provision of Cattle and Meat, Imperial Potato Office, Imperial Evaporated Potato Company, War Potato Company, War Committee for Substitute Fodder, War Brandy Company, War Fodder Company, and Union for German Agriculture, with Special Reference to Sugar, Bran, Fodder and Fodder Substitutes... The titles of those given here are enough to show the difficulties certain to result from the overlapping of different enterprises.” (//New York Times//, 10 April 1917) “A special agency (i.e. the War Food Office) controlled prices and rationed food. It decreed two meatless days a week and fed Germans on war bread in which turnips and potatoes were mixed with flour.” (David Thomson, //Europe Since Napoleon//, p.576)


 * Financing the war**


 * The war cost Germany much more than the government was receiving in taxes.
 * Karl Helferrich – Minister for Finance – printed more money.
 * Borrowed money: Imperial Loan Fund: citizens encouraged to buy war bonds.
 * Caused inflation and massive debt.
 * The government expected that this would all be financed by the defeated countries once the war was over.

“We cling to the hope that, once peace has been concluded, we can present our enemies with the bill for this war which has been forced upon us.” Karl Helferrich, quoted in Webb, World War I – From Sarajevo to Versailles, p.91

There were many posters encouraging people to buy war bonds. These appealed to a range of emotions. Below are some examples.
 * [[image:war_loans_help_the_guardians_of_your_happiness.jpg width="266" height="405"]] || [[image:war_loan_hindenburg.jpg width="290" height="427"]] || [[image:9th_war_loan.jpg width="305" height="458"]] ||

= Britain =

Before the war, Britain was a democratic society and had less government control than Germany, a free press, strong unions and no conscription. Therefore Government control took longer to develop than in Germany.

As the war progressed, the government realised the need for more control of production of armaments and food. Greater restrictions on freedom developed.

8 August 1914 – **Defence of the Realm Act** (DORA).
 * Civil rights suspended. Control gradually increased: restrictions on kite flying, feeding bread to animals, permission needed to buy binoculars.
 * The government could buy goods at low prices.
 * Transport could be commandeered for military use.
 * 1915 Drinking was restricted: opening hours shortened, prices increased, alcoholic content reduced.
 * 1916 Daylight Saving introduced.


 * Food**
 * Dec 1916 Lord Davenport – food controller – introduced voluntary food restrictions
 * April 1917 Bread economy campaign
 * Board of Agriculture established the Food Production Department – increased the amount of land available for wheat production.
 * Feb 1918 Lord Rhondda (succeeded Lord Davenport as food controller) introduction rationing for some foodstuffs, e.g. meat.
 * [[image:Save_the_Wheat_Help_the_Fleet.jpg width="288" height="436" align="right"]] || [[image:The_Kitchen_is_the_Key_to_Victory.jpg width="264" height="411"]] ||

//A British government leaflet describing various penalties given out to people breaching the wartime rationing legislation. 1918//


 * [[image:no_potatoes_punch_11_april_1917.jpg width="333" height="450" caption=""I ain't enough paper to wrop him up, Mister; but no one'll notice a nood wurzel in war-time." (Punch 11 April 1917)"]] || [[image:ministry_of_food_control_punch_11_april_1917.jpg width="375" height="450" caption="MR. PUNCH. "Do you control food here?" COMMISSIONAIRE. "Well, Sir, 'control' is perhaps rather a strong word. But we give hints to householders, and we issue 'grave warnings.'" (punch 11 April 1917)"]] ||


 * [[image:Delivering_the_Goods_Punch_1915.jpg width="407" height="534" align="right" caption="Punch 1915"]]Munitions**

The shortage of armaments required a greater production capacity.

May 1915 **David Lloyd George** became **Minister for Munitions**

July 1915 **Munitions of War Act** increased government control of production:
 * subsidies for private companies
 * government started new companies
 * amalgamation of companies encouraged
 * research and development increased

Gradually increased production.

Successfully negotiated with unions to ensure efficient production and reduce strikes:
 * Dilution: breaking down complex tasks into simpler ones so that unskilled labour (e.g. women) could be used. To get union agreement, it was only to last until the end of the war.
 * encouraged bonuses, collective bargaining, award rates of pay and arbitration.
 * controlled food prices.
 * Rent Restriction Act 1915 – kept rent at 1914 levels.

There were restrictions on labour:
 * Fines for lateness, absenteeism and striking
 * working hours increased
 * leisure activities were restricted
 * Leaving Certificate: workers were required to obtain a Leaving Certificate from their employer before they could leave job in a munitions factory, otherwise they were not allowed to work for six weeks. Restricted movement of labour.


 * **War-based production 1914-1918** ||
 * **Item** || **1914** || **1915** || **1916** || **1917** || **1918** ||
 * **Guns** || 91 || 3,390 || 4,314 || 5,137 || 8,039 ||
 * **Tanks** || - || 150 || 1,110 || 1,359 || - ||
 * **Aircraft** || 200 || 1,900 || 6,100 || 14,700 || 32,000 ||
 * **Machine Guns** || 300 || 6,100 || 33,500 || 79,700 || 120,990 ||
 * Cawood, I and McKinnon Bell, D, //The First World War//, 2001, p.56 ||


 * Financing the war**
 * Borrowed money through war savings certificates and war bonds
 * increased tax and lowered tax thresholds
 * sold overseas investments
 * Borrowed from the USA